Wang Guangzu: Birth of synthetic diamond

The Allure of Diamonds Ever since ancient times, diamonds have captivated human fascination. Known as "diamonds" or "adamant," these extraordinarily rare minerals were discovered in India around 3,000 BC, though they were likely known to the ancient Greeks as early as the 5th century BC. The term "diamond" derives from the Arabic word "al-mas" meaning "hardest" and the Greek word "aδ aμas," signifying "unconquerable," "invincible," and "indestructible." Diamonds are not just incredibly hard but possess numerous other exceptional qualities. Their hardness surpasses that of cubic silicon carbide by three times, their wear resistance exceeds alumina by five times, their compressive strength outdoes tungsten carbide by twenty times, their sound transmission rate is triple that of steel, and their heat conduction is four times greater than silver. Additionally, diamonds exhibit a remarkably high light transmission range and chemical inertness (below 500°C), along with unmatched electrical resistivity, refractive index, radiation resistance, and a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, friction, and specific heat. These unparalleled properties make diamonds indispensable in countless applications. Not only are diamonds the most abundant material in the universe, but they also serve as the most valuable resource for humanity. In the future, they could become the best heat sinks for electronic components, the clearest windows for radiation sources, the sturdiest coatings for chemical containers, the smoothest surfaces for mechanical seals, the ideal medium for biomedical materials, and even the fastest semiconductors for information transfer. We anticipate that with abundant diamonds, humanity can forge a brighter material civilization, ushering our children and grandchildren into an everlasting "diamond age." Who wouldn't want to open such a promising future? We do! A Century of Quest for Success Although diamonds were discovered in India as early as 3,000 BC, their true nature remained a mystery until the late 17th century when it was discovered that diamonds are flammable. This revelation brought British chemists and German physicists onto the scene. However, due to insufficient pressure and high temperatures, previous attempts to convert graphite into diamonds failed, making the transformation seemingly impossible. Despite these setbacks, each attempt contributed valuable insights towards the eventual success. It became evident that synthesizing diamonds requires both extreme pressure and high temperatures simultaneously. In 1938, Rossini and Jessup published their calculations for the diamond-graphite equilibrium line, followed by Liepumsky in 1939 and PWBrigman in 1947. These theoretical advancements laid the groundwork for understanding the conditions necessary for creating synthetic diamonds. With the maturation of synthetic diamond growth theories and high-pressure, high-temperature technologies, it was clear that the arrival of synthetic diamonds was imminent. In 1954, the U.S. GE Corporation announced the successful creation of synthetic diamonds. Sweden followed suit in 1953, and by 1959, South Africa, the Soviet Union, and Japan had also achieved success. While this technology was initially closed off to China, the pioneering successes abroad gave Chinese scientists the confidence to pursue their own path toward synthesizing diamonds. Mission Glorious and Responsible China's journey into synthetic diamond development began in the early 1960s. Two teams emerged: one at the national level under the Academy of Sciences and another at the ministerial level. Both aimed to conquer the elusive technology of producing synthetic diamonds. While one focused on advancing academic disciplines, the other addressed the pressing need for these materials. Our efforts were intense, requiring rapid progress. Time was of the essence, and after thousands of sleepless nights, our team emerged victorious, earning recognition at the 1978 National Science Conference. Team Members The Academy of Sciences team included members from the Institute of Physics and the Institute of Geology. The ministerial team comprised the First Machinery Department, the General Machinery Research Institute, the Abrasives Grinding Research Institute, and the Geological Science Research Institute. The Academy of Sciences team was led by Professors He Shouan and Zhang Yuanlong. In her article "Progress in the Study of Synthetic Diamonds in China," Shen Shen noted that since the mid-1950s, internationally reported experiments using static high-pressure methods yielded abrasive-grade diamonds in laboratories. Consequently, high-pressure methods garnered significant attention from scientists and technicians. The high-pressure phase transformation and synthesis project became a key initiative in China's natural sciences development plan, particularly within the field of high-pressure physics. Li Daming and Liu Guangzhi recounted in "Thirty Years of History" that the Mineral Research Laboratory of the Institute of Geology focused on applied basic research. Under Professor Zhang Yuanlong's leadership, several intraocular lens growth projects commenced in 1960. The diamond project was among the "five golden flowers," representing the five most challenging endeavors. Analyzing various international reports on ultra-high pressure and high-temperature devices, Mr. Zhang devised a "one-way loading four-pair oblique sliding surface cube (hexahedron) ultra-high pressure device with a 450-inch sliding surface in 1962. Due to limited processing capabilities at the Institute of Geology, the device was completed and operational by 1965. Departmental Team In 1960, the international situation changed dramatically. The severance of diamond sources severely impacted China's socialist construction. Recognizing the critical need to address diamond scarcity, the state issued a directive to develop synthetic diamonds. This effort involved collaboration among the General Machinery Research Institute, the Abrasives Grinding Research Institute, and the Geological Science Research Institute. The task aligned perfectly with the institute's mission to develop new abrasives and tools, reinforcing its core objectives of material-product-application. Upon receiving the assignment, we formed a dedicated team codenamed 121. My colleague and I, with backgrounds in chemistry, delved into university-level studies of material structures, chemical thermodynamics, and kinetics—advantages that proved invaluable in our diamond research. Our practical experience in silicon carbide smelting in the Soviet Union and East Germany further enhanced our expertise. During silicon carbide production, a form of decomposed graphite known as silicon carbide emerges, characterized by high purity. The carbon-based materials used in smelting, including metallurgical coke and pitch coke, complemented our research endeavors. General Machinery Research Institute: responsible for designing and fabricating high-temperature, high-pressure equipment, pressure measurement, and organizational coordination. Institute of Geological Sciences: responsible for selecting and measuring pressure-transmitting insulating materials. Abrasives Grinding Research Institute: responsible for the synthesis process and analysis. The principle of cooperation: division of labor without separation. Joint research participants: General Machinery Research Institute: Lian Yuanjian, Hu Enliang, Xu Jinfeng, Zhang Yonghua, Jin Qiuye, Liu Kaizhong, and Du Fuchang; Institute of Geological Sciences: Yao Yucheng, Xiong Wensong, Zhou Jitang, Sun Rongchuan; Abrasives Grinding Institute: Yu Hongchang, Wang Guangzu, Lu Feixiong, Yu Zhengmin, and Li Jinbao. Experimental site: Underground laboratory of the office building of Beijing General Machinery Research Institute. From that point onward, I have maintained a lifelong connection to the diamond industry. Although I studied chemistry, I lacked knowledge about diamond synthesis technology, leaving a gap in my understanding. We bear the responsibility to alleviate the nation's concerns! As engineers and technicians trained in the new China, we worry about our country's future. What is our duty? We swiftly embarked on research, gathering and reading extensive data on diamond growth. The "Foundation of Synthetic Diamond Synthesis Process" was drafted to guide experimentation. Through data analysis, the following points became clear: (1) Graphite and diamond are allotropes of carbon. Crystal structure analysis reveals their potential for mutual transformation, meaning it is theoretically feasible to produce diamond from graphite using GE's experiments; (2) Graphite can only transform into diamond under ultra-high pressure and high temperature; (3) Without a catalyst, graphite can convert to diamond but requires much higher pressure and temperature conditions. With a catalyst, the required conditions are significantly reduced. Clearly, the former approach is impractical. How to address these challenges? This is what we needed to design and explore. Theoretical Basis for Implementation Based on the draft of the "Synthetic Basis of Synthetic Diamond Technology," we focused on analyzing thermodynamic conditions in the graphite-diamond transformation process, discussing the equilibrium curve, examining dynamic conditions, exploring catalysis, discussing sample heating methods, and analyzing the heating and pressurization process. During this analysis, Professor Sun Chengwei from Peking University's Chemistry Department and Professor Chen Meihua from East China Textile Institute of Technology provided guidance on theoretical issues. Several considerations were proposed for preparing the "Foundation of Synthetic Diamond Synthetic Process": 1. Provide a theoretical foundation for the initial phase of synthetic diamond crystal growth experiments; 2. Understand the general laws of diamond crystal growth through thermodynamic and kinetic conditions of the graphite-diamond transformation process and the preliminary analysis of the role of the catalyst; 3. Details such as activation energy and reaction rate calculations for synthetic diamond processes (the first phase) are not yet considered, but it must be emphasized that this theoretical work must be done. Before the start of the project, I provided a detailed explanation of the "Implementation Plan for Synthetic Diamond Synthesis Process" to the research team members. Participants included: Yu Hongchang, Lu Feixiong, Hu Enliang, Jin Qiuye, Xu Jinfeng, Yu Zhengmin, Zhou Jitang, Yao Yucheng, Liu Kaizhong, Xiong Wensong, and Zhang Yonghua. The report was divided into three parts: 1. Introduction According to published information, research centers for synthetic diamond synthesis technology have been established in many countries, with vigorous research efforts yielding significant results. Although the technical outline has been disclosed, key details remain confidential and require further study by Chinese scientists. Therefore, we believe that: (1) Natural diamonds cannot meet the demands of scientific and technological development, necessitating the pursuit of artificial synthesis; (2) Given China's limited natural resources and high demand, we must quickly master the new technology for growing diamond crystals. 2. A Brief History of Synthetic Diamond Research Experiments led by notable figures such as British chemist Hannery in 1880, French physicist Moissan in 1894, and American high-pressure physics researcher PWBridgman from 1935 to 1940 demonstrated mastery of synthetic diamond technology by the 1950s. It was proven that the synthetic process must involve simultaneous ultra-high pressure and high temperature, meaning diamond formation is only possible under these combined conditions. 3. Analysis of Thermodynamic Conditions During Graphite-Diamond Transformation and Discussion of Equilibrium Curve Thermodynamic principles and data form the basis for calculating and discussing the graphite-diamond equilibrium curve. In studying the graphite-diamond transformation, thermodynamic issues must first be considered because thermodynamic calculations allow us to predict the direction of the transformation process, providing a theoretical foundation for studying this process. (1) Thermodynamic Basis (2) Calculation of Equilibrium Curve (3) Discussion of Equilibrium Curve (4) Analysis of Kinetic Conditions During Graphite Diamond Transformation (5) Catalysis of Graphite-Diamond Transformation Process (6) Consideration of Catalyst Selection Problem. (7) Discussion on Sample Addition Method (8) Discussion on Sample Heating Method (9) Analysis of Pressure Heating Process Yes, D is That Based on the calculated graphite-diamond equilibrium curve, we conducted experimental research. After numerous trials of failure, improvement, failure, and improvement, the first synthetic diamond in China was successfully created on the night of December 6, 1963, at the high-pressure laboratory of the Beijing General Machinery Research Institute. The device used was a domestically designed and manufactured 61-type double-faced ultra-high pressure device. The participants in the experiment were: Hu Enliang, Xu Jinfeng, Zhang Yonghua, and Du Fuchang from the General Machinery Research Institute, Wang Guangzu, Lu Feixiong, and Li Jinbao from the Abrasives Grinding Research Institute. I remember that this evening, during the 32nd experiment in a series of programs, we discovered shiny crystals mysteriously appearing in the synthetic rods. When these crystals were scratched against glass, they emitted a crisp and resonant sound, signaling the arrival of diamonds in China. After undergoing acid treatment and separation by heavy liquid, yellow-green crystals with diameters of 20 to 30 μm were obtained. X-ray analysis confirmed that the synthesized sample shared the same spectral lines as natural diamonds and synthetic diamond samples from the U.S. and Japan, indicating that the yellow-green crystal was indeed diamond. Detailed data are listed in Table 1. Table 1 Comparison of Synthetic Samples in China with Foreign and Natural Diamond Spectral Data Due to the secrecy surrounding the development of the subject, if diamonds were present in the synthesized sample, the joint code was D, the first letter of Diamond. On December 10, 1963, we received a telegram from Hongchang. The message was untranslated. It was already 9:00 pm. Hu Enliang and Tang Yujing went to the Tianqiao Post Office to find an interpreter. Upon seeing the translated message, they discovered the letter D. When we were on the line, we were overjoyed. Three years of hard work had borne fruit. The laboratory erupted in cheers, and we succeeded! We succeeded! It was the great victory of Mao Zedong Thought, the great victory of Chairman Mao’s revolutionary line, and the result of the great cooperation of socialism. The Abrasives Grinding Research Institute reported these results to the Ministry of Science and Technology. To ensure accuracy, the director of the Science and Technology Department instructed the National Authority to conduct a re-inspection. So he appointed Wang Huarong to go to Beijing to assist his steel research institute teacher. After the identification results came out, I said to Wang Huarong, your result is correct, it is D! Congratulations on making a significant contribution to the country! Conclusion The National Science and Technology Commission officially issued the "synthetic diamond test research" in October 1963. The project was assigned to a machinery department. Due to its highly confidential nature, it was named "121." The "121" of Zhengzhou Abrasives Grinding and Grinding Research Institute was determined by the "121" subject number. After the research institute moved to the Zhengzhou National High-tech Development Zone, the license plate number remained 121, holding far-reaching significance. On December 6, 1963, the birth of China's first synthetic diamond was achieved under the meticulous organization and care of the country. It was jointly researched by the above three research institutes and obtained in the underground laboratory of the Beijing General Machinery Research Institute. It represents the crystallization of interdisciplinary collaboration and collective wisdom. After the emergence of a synthetic diamond, the collaboration between the three institutions came to a close. We know that this is merely the first step in the long journey of the man-made diamond industry. The road of artificial diamond production awaits our creation. (Text / Wang Guangzu Zhengzhou Abrasives Grinding Research Institute) References (omitted)

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